The Harvard Professor Who Shot a Financial Titan and Fomented Anti-German Sentiment in a Pre-WWI America

What Is Forex Trading ? – A Definition & Introduction What is Forex? – The basics… Basically, the Forex market is where banks, businesses, governments, investors and traders come to exchange and speculate on currencies. The Forex market is also referred to as the ‘Fx market’, ‘Currency market’, ‘Foreign exchange currency market’ or ‘Foreign currency market’, and it is the largest and most liquid market in the world with an average daily turnover of $3.98 trillion. The Fx market is open 24 hours a day, 5 days a week with the most important world trading centers being located in London, New York, Tokyo, Zurich, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Singapore, Paris, and Sydney. It should be noted that there is no central marketplace for the Forex market; trading is instead said to be conducted ‘over the counter’; it’s not like stocks where there is a central marketplace with all orders processed like the NYSE. Forex is a product quoted by all the major banks, and not all banks will have the exact same price. Now, the broker platforms take all theses feeds from the different banks and the quotes we see from our broker are an approximate average of them. It’s the broker who is effectively transacting the trade and taking the other side of it…they ‘make the market’ for you. When you buy a currency pair…your broker is selling it to you, not ‘another trader’. • A brief history of the Forex market Ok, I admit, this part is going to be a little bit boring, but it’s important to have some basic background knowledge of the history of the Forex market so that you know a little bit about why it exists and how it got here. So here is the history of the Forex market in a nutshell: In 1876, something called the gold exchange standard was implemented. Basically it said that all paper currency had to be backed by solid gold; the idea here was to stabilize world currencies by pegging them to the price of gold. It was a good idea in theory, but in reality it created boom-bust patterns which ultimately led to the demise of the gold standard. The gold standard was dropped around the beginning of World War 2 as major European countries did not have enough gold to support all the currency they were printing to pay for large military projects. Although the gold standard was ultimately dropped, the precious metal never lost its spot as the ultimate form of monetary value. The world then decided to have fixed exchange rates that resulted in the U.S. dollar being the primary reserve currency and that it would be the only currency backed by gold, this is known as the ‘Bretton Woods System’ and it happened in 1944 (I know you super excited to know that). In 1971 the U.S. declared that it would no longer exchange gold for U.S. dollars that were held in foreign reserves, this marked the end of the Bretton Woods System. It was this break down of the Bretton Woods System that ultimately led to the mostly global acceptance of floating foreign exchange rates in 1976. This was effectively the “birth” of the current foreign currency exchange market, although it did not become widely electronically traded until about the mid 1990s. (OK! Now let’s move on to some more entertaining topics!)… What is Forex Trading? Forex trading as it relates to retail traders (like you and I) is the speculation on the price of one currency against another. For example, if you think the euro is going to rise against the U.S. dollar, you can buy the EURUSD currency pair low and then (hopefully) sell it at a higher price to make a profit. Of course, if you buy the euro against the dollar (EURUSD), and the U.S. dollar strengthens, you will then be in a losing position. So, it’s important to be aware of the risk involved in trading Forex, and not only the reward. • Why is the Forex market so popular? Being a Forex trader offers the most amazing potential lifestyle of any profession in the world. It’s not easy to get there, but if you are determined and disciplined, you can make it happen. Here’s a quick list of skills you will need to reach your goals in the Forex market: Ability – to take a loss without becoming emotional Confidence – to believe in yourself and your trading strategy, and to have no fear Dedication – to becoming the best Forex trader you can be Discipline – to remain calm and unemotional in a realm of constant temptation (the market) Flexibility – to trade changing market conditions successfully Focus – to stay concentrated on your trading plan and to not stray off course Logic – to look at the market from an objective and straight forward perspective Organization – to forge and reinforce positive trading habits Patience – to wait for only the highest-probability trading strategies according to your plan Realism – to not think you are going to get rich quick and understand the reality of the market and trading Savvy – to take advantage of your trading edge when it arises and be aware of what is happening in the market at all times Self-control – to not over-trade and over-leverage your trading account As traders, we can take advantage of the high leverage and volatility of the Forex market by learning and mastering and effective Forex trading strategy, building an effective trading plan around that strategy, and following it with ice-cold discipline. Money management is key here; leverage is a double-edged sword and can make you a lot of money fast or lose you a lot of money fast. The key to money management in Forex trading is to always know the exact dollar amount you have at risk before entering a trade and be TOTALLY OK with losing that amount of money, because any one trade could be a loser. More on money management later in the course. • Who trades Forex and why? Banks – The interbank market allows for both the majority of commercial Forex transactions and large amounts of speculative trading each day. Some large banks will trade billions of dollars, daily. Sometimes this trading is done on behalf of customers, however much is done by proprietary traders who are trading for the bank’s own account. Companies – Companies need to use the foreign exchange market to pay for goods and services from foreign countries and also to sell goods or services in foreign countries. An important part of the daily Forex market activity comes from companies looking to exchange currency in order to transact in other countries. Governments / Central banks – A country’s central bank can play an important role in the foreign exchange markets. They can cause an increase or decrease in the value of their nation’s currency by trying to control money supply, inflation, and (or) interest rates. They can use their substantial foreign exchange reserves to try and stabilize the market. Hedge funds – Somewhere around 70 to 90% of all foreign exchange transactions are speculative in nature. This means, the person or institutions that bought or sold the currency has no plan of actually taking delivery of the currency; instead, the transaction was executed with sole intention of speculating on the price movement of that particular currency. Retail speculators (you and I) are small cheese compared to the big hedge funds that control and speculate with billions of dollars of equity each day in the currency markets. Individuals – If you have ever traveled to a different country and exchanged your money into a different currency at the airport or bank, you have already participated in the foreign currency exchange market. Investors – Investment firms who manage large portfolios for their clients use the Fx market to facilitate transactions in foreign securities. For example, an investment manager controlling an international equity portfolio needs to use the Forex market to purchase and sell several currency pairs in order to pay for foreign securities they want to purchase. Retail Forex traders – Finally, we come to retail Forex traders (you and I). The retail Forex trading industry is growing everyday with the advent of Forex trading platforms and their ease of accessibility on the internet. Retail Forex traders access the market indirectly either through a broker or a bank. There are two main types of retail Forex brokers that provide us with the ability to speculate on the currency market: brokers and dealers. Brokers work as an agent for the trader by trying to find the best price in the market and executing on behalf of the customer. For this, they charge a commission on top of the price obtained in the market. Dealers are also called market makers because they ‘make the market’ for the trader and act as the counter-party to their transactions, they quote a price they are willing to deal at and are compensated through the spread, which is the difference between the buy and sell price (more on this later). Advantages of Trading the Forex Market: • Forex is the largest market in the world, with daily volumes exceeding $3 trillion per day. This means dense liquidity which makes it easy to get in and out of positions. • Trade whenever you want: There is no opening bell in the Forex market. You can enter or exit a trade whenever you want from Sunday around 5pm EST to Friday around 4pm EST. • Ease of access: You can fund your trading account with as little as $250 at many retail brokers and begin trading the same day in some cases. Straight through order execution allows you to trade at the click of a mouse. • Fewer currency pairs to focus on, instead of getting lost trying to analyze thousands of stocks • Freedom to trade anywhere in the world with the only requirements being a laptop and internet connection. • Commission-free trading with many retail market-makers and overall lower transaction costs than stocks and commodities. • Volatility allows traders to profit in any market condition and provides for high-probability weekly trading opportunities. Also, there is no structural market bias like the long bias of the stock market, so traders have equal opportunity to profit in rising or falling markets. While the forex market is clearly a great market to trade, I would note to all beginners that trading carries both the potential for reward and risk. Many people come into the markets thinking only about the reward and ignoring the risks involved, this is the fastest way to lose all of your trading account money. If you want to get started trading the Fx market on the right track, it’s critical that you are aware of and accept the fact that you could lose on any given trade you take. Forex Trading Terminology The Forex market comes with its very own set of terms and jargon. So, before you go any deeper into learning how to trade the Fx market, it’s important you understand some of the basic Forex terminology that you will encounter on your trading journey… • Basic Forex terms: Cross rate – The currency exchange rate between two currencies, both of which are not the official currencies of the country in which the exchange rate quote is given in. This phrase is also sometimes used to refer to currency quotes which do not involve the U.S. dollar, regardless of which country the quote is provided in. For example, if an exchange rate between the British pound and the Japanese yen was quoted in an American newspaper, this would be considered a cross rate in this context, because neither the pound or the yen is the standard currency of the U.S. However, if the exchange rate between the pound and the U.S. dollar were quoted in that same newspaper, it would not be considered a cross rate because the quote involves the U.S. official currency. Exchange Rate – The value of one currency expressed in terms of another. For example, if EUR/USD is 1.3200, 1 Euro is worth US$1.3200. Pip – The smallest increment of price movement a currency can make. Also called point or points. For example, 1 pip for the EUR/USD = 0.0001 and 1 pip for the USD/JPY = 0.01. Leverage – Leverage is the ability to gear your account into a position greater than your total account margin. For instance, if a trader has $1,000 of margin in his account and he opens a $100,000 position, he leverages his account by 100 times, or 100:1. If he opens a $200,000 position with $1,000 of margin in his account, his leverage is 200 times, or 200:1. Increasing your leverage magnifies both gains and losses. To calculate the leverage used, divide the total value of your open positions by the total margin balance in your account. For example, if you have $10,000 of margin in your account and you open one standard lot of USD/JPY (100,000 units of the base currency) for $100,000, your leverage ratio is 10:1 ($100,000 / $10,000). If you open one standard lot of EUR/USD for $150,000 (100,000 x EURUSD 1.5000) your leverage ratio is 15:1 ($150,000 / $10,000). Margin – The deposit required to open or maintain a position. Margin can be either “free” or “used”. Used margin is that amount which is being used to maintain an open position, whereas free margin is the amount available to open new positions. With a $1,000 margin balance in your account and a 1% margin requirement to open a position, you can buy or sell a position worth up to a notional $100,000. This allows a trader to leverage his account by up to 100 times or a leverage ratio of 100:1. If a trader’s account falls below the minimum amount required to maintain an open position, he will receive a “margin call” requiring him to either add more money into his or her account or to close the open position. Most brokers will automatically close a trade when the margin balance falls below the amount required to keep it open. The amount required to maintain an open position is dependent on the broker and could be 50% of the original margin required to open the trade. Spread – The difference between the sell quote and the buy quote or the bid and offer price. For example, if EUR/USD quotes read 1.3200/03, the spread is the difference between 1.3200 and 1.3203, or 3 pips. In order to break even on a trade, a position must move in the direction of the trade by an amount equal to the spread. • The major Forex pairs and their nicknames: • Understanding Forex currency pair quotes: You will need to understand how to properly read a currency pair quote before you start trading them. So, let’s get started with this: The exchange rate of two currencies is quoted in a pair, such as the EURUSD or the USDJPY. The reason for this is because in any foreign exchange transaction you are simultaneously buying one currency and selling another. If you were to buy the EURUSD and the euro strengthened against the dollar, you would then be in a profitable trade. Here’s an example of a Forex quote for the euro vs. the U.S. dollar: The first currency in the pair that is located to the left of the slash mark is called the base currency, and the second currency of the pair that’s located to the right of the slash market is called the counter or quote currency. If you buy the EUR/USD (or any other currency pair), the exchange rate tells you how much you need to pay in terms of the quote currency to buy one unit of the base currency. In other words, in the example above, you have to pay 1.32105 U.S. dollars to buy 1 euro. If you sell the EUR/USD (or any other currency pair), the exchange rate tells you how much of the quote currency you receive for selling one unit of the base currency. In other words, in the example above, you will receive 1.32105 U.S. dollars if you sell 1 euro. An easy way to think about it is like this: the BASE currency is the BASIS for the trade. So, if you buy the EURUSD you are buying euro’s (base currency) and selling dollars (quote currency), if you sell the EURUSD you are selling euro’s (base currency) and buying dollars (quote currency). So, whether you buy or sell a currency pair, it is always based upon the first currency in the pair; the base currency. The basic point of Forex trading is to buy a currency pair if you think its base currency will appreciate (increase in value) relative to the quote currency. If you think the base currency will depreciate (lose value) relative to the quote currency you would sell the pair. • Bid and Ask price Bid Price – The bid is the price at which the market (or your broker) will buy a specific currency pair from you. Thus, at the bid price, a trader can sell the base currency to their broker. Ask Price – The ask price is the price at which the market (or your broker) will sell a specific currency pair to you. Thus, at the ask price you can buy the base currency from your broker. Forex trading is everything.

The breaking news of July 4, 1915, shocked New Yorkers and the rest of the country. A shooting at the home of America’s most powerful banker J.P. Morgan, the son of the financial giant (and tyrant) with the same name, exposed tensions that could barely be kept under wraps as the United States—with about 15 percent of its population born abroad—struggled to remain neutral in the the war tearing apart Europe.

On the morning of July 3, 1915, while Morgan and his wife, Jane—known as Jessie--took  breakfast with the British ambassador and his wife in the Morgans’ three-story mansion near Glen Cove on Long Island, their butler, Physick, opened the door to a lanky man who demanded to speak to the financier. When Physick demurred, the man pulled two guns from his coat and forced his way inside. Keeping his cool, the butler led the way to the library, allowed the intruder to enter before him and slammed the door shut before racing down the hall, calling for the Morgans to hide.

The Morgans hurried upstairs. The intruder, who later told the press his name was Frank Holt, realized that he’d been duped and quickly followed after them. Morgan and Holt came face-to-face on the second floor landing, and the bullish banker charged. Holt fired twice, and Morgan, who weighed about 220 pounds, toppled forward, knocking his assailant to the floor. Mrs. Morgan pried away one of Holt’s guns while he remained pinned beneath her husband. Physick arrived on the scene and finished off the job, striking Holt on the right temple with a lump of coal. Shot in the groin and thigh, Morgan was rushed to hospital while Holt was carted away to the police station.

The truth emerged quickly: Holt had set off bombs at the Capitol building in Washington D.C. on the evening of July 2, and had then taken the night train to New York. No one was killed or hurt, but the bombs unleashed considerable damage on the reception rooms outside the vice-president’s office. In a letter mailed to various newspapers ahead of the attacks, Holt claimed that he hadn’t intended to cause any harm; all he wanted, or so he said, was to bring attention to his cause. He justified his actions saying, “Unusual times and circumstances call for unusual means,” and offered similar reasons to explain his visit to Morgan, maintaining that he had hoped to “convince” the banker to use his “great influence” to halt the United States’ exports of arms and ammunition to Europe


When reporters asked Holt whether news of the Morgan Bank’s recent $100 million dollar loan to the British government had precipitated his actions, he replied: “That was only a detail … I had decided upon my course before that… You think my sympathies are pro-German. That is not the case. I am merely against wholesale slaughter.”

Given the public furor over the death of 128 Americans when a German U-boat sank the passenger liner Lusitania that May, and concerns that Berlin had dispatched saboteurs and spies to America, the press were predisposed to pile on with anti-German sentiment. In headlines that stretched across the front page of the July 4 paper, The New York Times reported: “J.P. Morgan Hit By Man Who Set the Capitol Bomb, Hit By Two Bullets Before Wife Disarms Assailants; He is Frank Holt, Ex-Teacher of German at Cornell; Physicians Say the Bullets Touched No Vital Spot.”

Stories and letters poured into newspapers questioning the loyalty of so-called “hyphenated Americans,” especially German-Americans, who were looked upon with suspicion in the aftermath of the sinking of the Lusitania by German U-boats earlier in May. The Times ran a story on page three on July 4: “Holt an American of German Descent,” describing him as a “rather reticent person,” but decidedly “pro-German.”

An editorial in the Herald attributed the act to “the preaching of… mouthpieces of the pro-German propaganda. If Germany had control of the seas, the shipment of these arms would be all right according to the creed of these German-Americans.” Another in the Tribune called German submarine warfare “inhuman,” and went on to say that “[n]ow the example has spread. German partisans in this country are beginning to take their cue from the barbarity and lawlessness of the German government.” Some, like the Denver Herald, veered on the side of moderation: “On this anniversary of the day of Independence we should also pray for a safe and sane press.”

The papers covered the Morgans sympathetically. After all, this was “Jack” Morgan, not his feared father (the first J.P. Morgan had died in 1913) and the Morgans had been waiting to welcome home their recently married son when Holt attacked.

It turned out that ‘Holt’ was an alias for Erich Muenter, a Harvard professor who had gone missing after police began to suspect him of murdering his wife in 1906. (As seen in the headline mentioned earlier, the reporters originally thought Muenter taught at Cornell.) The press then ascribed Muenter’s motive to temporary insanity and “cracked brains.” He had gone on to marry again, have a child and settle in Dallas.

Despite his questionable mental state, Muenter was on to something when he targeted Morgan in his misguided call for peace. Historian Robert Zieger estimates that between 1915 and 1917, Morgan and Company and its subsidiaries bought more than $3 billion worth of goods on behalf of the Allies, and that by 1917, the Morgan financial juggernaut carried nearly a half-billion-dollars-worth of British debt. A study conducted by Britain’s Treasury Department in 1916 found that Britain was dependent on the United States for the financial ability to conduct the war, and other historians have estimated that without American financing, Britain would have exhausted its reserves of gold and securities by 1917.

President Woodrow Wilson’s attempts to keep the country neutral would eventually fail, but as the news of the Morgan attack hit the streets, American participation in World War I wasn’t a foregone conclusion. The resignation of Williams Jennings Bryan as Secretary of State a few weeks earlier may have moved the country one step closer to siding with the Allies but maintaining a cohesive national spirit amongst a divided immigrant population remained a priority. In New York City, Independence Day celebrations had been planned to welcome all comers and to foster a sense of American identity. A long weekend of festivities (the Fourth fell on a Sunday that year) included a naturalization ceremony at City College Stadium in which local and state officials welcomed 20,000 immigrants as U.S. citizens. Parades exuded patriotism in parks and playgrounds across all five boroughs, and special events extolled the virtues of the United States, such as movie screenings featuring the nation’s natural wonders sponsored by the League of Foreign-Born Citizens. It is a testament perhaps to the “safe and sane” voices that the U.S. only entered the war in 1917, almost two years after Morgan was shot. 

As for the banker and his attacker: Morgan recovered from his wounds and returned to business that August, while Muenter committed suicide just two days after the Fourth.

Radha Vatsal is a writer based in New York. She is the author of the recent novel A Front Page Affair.

Sumber: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/harvard-professor-bombed-congress-shot-financial-titan-spurred-anti-german-sentiment-180959679/

HALAMAN SELANJUTNYA:

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